By Silvia Masiero, Loughborough University

The notion of datafication implies rendering existing objects, actions and processes into data. Widely studied in the field of business intelligence, datafication is known to restructure consumer behaviour and the functioning of markets in multiple ways. But a less-widely researched aspect pertains to the datafication of public welfare and social protection programmes, on which the livelihoods of many poor and vulnerable people worldwide are based. The field of information and communication technology for development (ICT4D), which for more than thirty years has focused on the roles of informatics in development processes, is coming to realize the growing importance of datafication in the enactment of social policies.

Datafication acquires a particular meaning when referring to anti-poverty programmes, which are social protection schemes designed specifically for the poor. In such schemes, what is converted into machine-readable data is in the first place the population of entitled users. This leads to restructuring two core functions of anti-poverty schemes: first is the recognition of beneficiaries, automatizing the process that discriminates entitled individuals and households from non-entitled ones. Second is the correct assignation of entitlements, based on the availability of machine-readable data for their determination. While both functions were previously paper-based or only partially digitized, datafication affords the power to automatize them, with a view of infusing greater effectiveness and accountability in programme design.

Against this backdrop, my research focuses on the two concomitant aspects of the effects of datafication on the architecture of anti-poverty programmes, and its consequences on the entitlements that beneficiaries receive through them. My PhD thesis focused on the digitalization of the Public Distribution System (PDS), which is India’s largest food security programme and centres on distributing primary necessity items (mainly rice, wheat, sugar and kerosene) at subsidized prices to the nation’s poor. The back-end digitalization of the scheme, started at the state level in the early 2000s, is now culminating in datafication of the programme through the Unique Identity Project (Aadhaar), an identity scheme that constitutes the biggest biometric identification database in the world. Built with the declared purpose of facilitating the socioeconomic inclusion of India’s poor, Aadhaar provides all enrolees with a 12-digit number and the capture of biometric details, to make sure, among other aspects, that each enrolee obtains their social benefits through a simple operation of biometric recognition.

Datafication contributes to deep transformation of anti-poverty programmes, with mixed effects on programme architecture and entitlements of beneficiaries

My data collection on the datafied PDS has occurred in the two southern Indian states of Kerala and Karnataka, and also comprehends a review of the state-level cases of Aadhaar-based PDS currently operating in India. Through the years, my research has developed three lines of reflection which I synoptically illustrate below.

First, datafication is constructed by the Indian central government as a tool for simplification of access, and of improvement of users’ capability to obtain their entitlements under existing schemes. The Aadhaar-based PDS is indeed constructed to reduce the inclusion error, meaning access to the programme by non-entitled people, and the exclusion error (Swaminathan 2002), meaning the negation of subsidy to the entitled. In doing so, the biometric system traces sales from PDS ration shops to reduce diversion (rice mafia), an illegal network through which foodgrains aimed at the poor are diverted on the market for higher margins. What emerges from my research is a strong governmental narrative portraying Aadhaar as a problem-solver of PDS: technology is depicted by government officials as a simplifier of the existing system, facilitating a better and more accountable functioning of a leakage-prone anti-poverty scheme that has been in operation for a long time.

Second, recipients’ view of the datafied PDS is mixed: it reveals some positive changes, but also a set of issues that were not in place before the advent of the biometric system. One, making access conditional to enrolment in the Aadhaar database, the new system subordinates the universal right to food to enrolment in a biometric database, leading the poor to ‘trade’ their data for the food rations needed for their livelihoods. Two, while the programme is designed to combat the inclusion error, new forms of exclusion are caused by systems’ malfunctionings leading to failure in user recognition, which in turn results in families having their food rations denied even for several months in a row. Three, the system is not built to act on the back-end diversion (PDS commodities being diverted before they reach the ration shops where users buy them), where, according to existing studies of the PDS supply chain, the greatest part of goods is diverted (Khera 2011, Drèze & Khera 2015).

Third, there is a specific restructuring intent behind the creation of an Aadhaar-based PDS. From documents and narratives released by the central government, a clear teleology emerges: Aadhaar is not conceived to simply streamline the PDS, but to substitute it, in the longer run, with a system of cash transfers to the bank accounts of beneficiaries. As government officials declare, this serves the purpose of reducing the distortion caused by subsidies, and create a more effective system where existing leakages cannot take place. A large majority of beneficiaries, however, is suspicious towards cash transfers (Drèze et al. 2017): a prominent argument is that these are more complex to collect and handle, with respect to the secure materiality of PDS food rations. What is sure, beyond points of view on the appropriateness of cash transfers, is that the teleology behind the Aadhaar-based PDS is not that of streamlining the system, but that of creating a new one where the logic of buying goods on the market replaces the existing logic of subsidies.

Aadhaar concurs to enable a shift from in-kind subsidies to cash transfers, with uncertain consequences on poor people’s entitlements

Rooted into field research on datafied anti-poverty systems, these reflections offer two main contributions to extant theorizations of datafication in the Global South. First, they highlight the role of state governments in using datafied systems towards construction of a positive image of themselves, portraying datafication as a problem-solving tool adopted to tackle the most pressing issues affecting existing programmes. The power of datafication, embodied by large biometric infrastructures such as Aadhaar, is used to project an image of accountability and effectiveness, relied upon in electoral times and in the construction of consensus from the public opinion. At the same time, citizens’ perspectives reveal forms of data injustice (Heeks & Renken 2018) which did not exist before datafication, such as the denial of subsidies based on failure of user recognition by point-of-sale machines or the subordination of the right to food to enrolment in a national biometric database.

Second, datafication is often portrayed by governments and public entities as a means to streamline anti-poverty programmes, improving the mechanisms at the basis of their functioning. By contrast, my research suggests a more pervasive role of datafication, capable of transforming the very basis on which existing social protection systems are grounded (Masiero 2015). The Aadhaar case is a revealing one in this respect: as it is incorporated in extant subsidy systems, Aadhaar does not aim to simply improve their functioning, but to substitute the logic of in-kind subsidies with a market-based architecture of cash transfers. Moving the drivers of governance of anti-poverty systems from the state to the market, datafication is hence implicated in a deep reformative effort, which may have massive consequences on programme architecture and the entitlements of the poor.

Entrenched in the Indian system of social protection, Aadhaar is today the greatest datafier of anti-poverty programmes in the world. Here we have outlined its primary effects, and especially its ability to reshape existing anti-poverty policies at their very basis. Ongoing research across ICT4D, data ethics and development studies pertains to the ways datafication will affect anti-poverty programme entitlements, for the many people whose livelihoods are predicated on them.

Silvia Masiero is a lecturer in International Development at the School of Business and Economics, Loughborough University. Her research concerns the role of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in socio-economic development, with a focus on the participation of ICT artefacts in the politics of anti-poverty programmes and emergency management.

References:

Drèze, J., and Khera, R. (2015) Understanding leakages in the Public Distribution System. Economic and Political Weekly, 50(7), 39-42.

Drèze, J., Khalid, N., Khera, R., & Somanchi, A. (2017). Aadhaar and Food Security in Jharkhand. Economic & Political Weekly, 52(50), 50-60.

Heeks, R., & Renken, J. (2018). Data justice for development: What would it mean? Information Development, 34(1), 90-102.

Khera, R. (2011). India’s Public Distribution System: utilisation and impact. Journal of Development Studies, 47(7), 1038-1060.

Masiero, S. (2015). Redesigning the Indian food security system through e-governance: The case of Kerala. World Development, 67, 126-137.

Swaminathan, M. (2002). Excluding the needy: The public provisioning of food in India. Social Scientist, 30(3-4), 34-58.

by Cecilia Maundu

I remember it was September 2015 when I was invited for a two-day workshop on digital safety by the Association of Media Women in Kenya. At first I was very curious because I had not heard much about digital security. The two-day workshop was an eye opener. After the workshop I found myself hungry for more information on this issue.

Naturally, I went online to find more information. I must say I was shocked at the statistics I came across on the number of women who have been abused online, and continue to suffer. Women were being subjected to sexist attacks. They were attacked because of their identity as women, not because of their opinions. I asked myself what can I do? I am well aware that I am just a drop in the ocean, but any little change I can bring will help in some way. That was a light bulb moment for me.

It was in that moment that I knew I wanted to be a digital safety trainer. I wanted to learn how to train people, especially women, on how to stay safe online. The internet is the vehicle of the future. This future is now, and we cannot afford for women to be left behind.

Online violence eventually pushes victims to stay offline. It is censorship hidden behind the veil of freedom of expression.

After this realization, I embarked on the quest to become a digital safety trainer. As fate would have it, my mentor Grace Githaiga came across the SafeSister fellowship opportunity and sent it to me. I applied and got into the program. The training was taking place in Ngaruga lodge, Uganda. The venue of the training was beyond serene. The calm lake waters next to the hotel signified how we want the internet to be for women: a calm place and a safe space where women can express themselves freely without fear of being victimized, or their voices being invalidated.

On arrival we were met by one of the facilitators, Helen, who gave us a warm welcome. The training was conducted by five facilitators, all of whom were women.

The training was student friendly. The topics were broken down in a way that allows everyone to understand what was being discussed. Each facilitator had her own way and style of delivering the different topics, from using charts to power point presentations. I must say they did an exceptional job. I got to learn more about online gender violence and how deeply rooted it is in our society, and hence the importance of digital security trainings.

Being a trainer is not only about having digital safety skills, it also requires you to be an all rounded person. While giving training you are bound to meet different types of people with different personalities, and it is your duty to make them feel comfortable and make sure the environment around them is safe. It is in this safe space that they will be able to talk and express their fears and desires, and, most importantly, they will be willing to learn. As a digital security trainer, you should first know more about your participants and how much they know about digital security. This will enable you to package your material according to their learning needs.

Being a trainer requires you to read a lot on digital security, because this keeps you updated and allows you, therefore, to relay accurate information to your trainees. As a trainer, it is also necessary to understand the concept of hands on training because it gives the participants the opportunity to put into practice what they have learnt. For example, when you are teaching about privacy status on Facebook, you don’t just talk about it, your should rather ask the participants to open their Facebook accounts – that is if they have any – and go through the instructions step by step with them till they are able to achieve the task. As a trainer there is also the possibility of meeting a participant who does not give the opportunity to the rest of the group to express their views, as they want to be the one to talk throughout. However, the trainer needs to take charge and make sure that each participant is given an equal opportunity to talk.

Before the training we had each been given a topic to make a presentation on, and mine was to do with encryption; VeraCrypt to be more specific. At first it sounded Greek to me, but then I resorted to my friend Google to get more details (this begs the question of: how was life before the internet?). By the time I was leaving Kenya for Uganda I had mastered VeraCrypt. We kept discussing our topics with the rest of the group to a point where they started calling me Vera. My presentation went so well to my surprise. The week went by so fast. By the time we realized it, it was over and it was time to go back home and start implementing what we had learnt.

We continued receiving very informative material online from the trainers. In September 2017 they opened up a pool of funding where we could apply to fund a training in our different home countries. I got the funding, and chose to hold the training at Multimedia University where I lecture part time. The reason behind my choice was that this was home for upcoming young media women, and we needed to train them on how to stay safe online, especially since media women in Kenya form the majority of victims of gender based violence. They needed to know what awaits them out there and the mechanisms they needed to have to protect themselves from the attacks. The training was a success, and the young ladies walked away happy and strong.

The second, and last, part of SafeSister (I am barely holding my tears here, because the end did come) took place in Uganda at the end of March 2018. It was such a nice reunion, meeting the other participants and our trainers after a year. This time the training was more relaxed. We were each given a chance to talk about the trainings we conducted, the challenges we encountered, the lessons learnt and what we would have done differently. For me the challenge I encountered was time management. The trainers had prepared quite informative materials, hence the time ran over, add to it a 3o minutes delayed start.

This was my first training, and one take home for me as a digital safety trainer was that not all participants will be enthusiastic about the training, but one shouldn’t be discouraged or feel like they are not doing enough. The trainer just needs to make sure that no participant is left out. The trainer should not just throw questions at the participants, or just ask for their opinion on different issues regarding digital safety. As time progresses, they gradually get enthusiastic and start feeling more at ease.

One thing I have learnt since I became a digital security trainer is that people are quite ignorant on digital security matters. People go to cybercafés and forget to sign out of their email accounts, or use the same password for more than a single account, and  then they ask you ‘’why would someone want to hack into my account or abuse me and I am not famous?” However, such questions should not discourage you, on the contrary, they should motivate you to give more trainings, because people don’t know how vulnerable they are by being online while their accounts and data are not protected. Also as a trainer, when you can, and when the need arises, give as much free trainings as you can, since not everyone can afford to pay you. It is through these trainings that you continue to sharpen your skills and become an excellent trainer.

After the training we were each awarded a certificate. It felt so good to know that I am now a certified digital security trainer; nothing can beat that feeling.  As they say, all good things must come to an end. Long live Internews, long live DefendDefenders Asante Sana. I will forever be grateful.

Cecilia Mwende Maundu is a broadcast journalist in Kenya, a digital security trainer and consultant with a focus on teaching women how to stay safe online. She is also a user experience (UX) trainer, collecting user information feedback and sharing it with developers.